Buffalo soldiers essays

Buffalo soldiers essays In the years immediately following the Civil War, thousands of former slaves moved westward, hoping to find new opportunities for employment. Among the opportunities open to young black men was serving with the United States Army. In 1866, the United States Congress authorized the creation of six regular Army regiments to be staffed entirely by black soldiers. By 1869, these regiments were decreased by two. Black men were given the choice of enlisting with the Ninth or Tenth Cavalry or the Twenty-fourth or Twenty-fifth Infantry. It is these regiments that would eventually be dubbed the Buffalo Soldiers (Katz 1996). The term Buffalo Soldiers was bestowed by the Plains Indians, who were the soldiers' enemies. Despite their enmity, however, the name reveals the respect many Native Americans accorded to the black soldiers. The Indians had high regard for the courage and valor shown by the black men in combat. This paper argues that the Buffalo Soldiers played a crucial, though often overlooked role in the history of westward expansion. By protecting settlers, the Buffalo Soldiers paved the way for the settlement of the west and the creation of the United States. By showing courage on the battlefield, the Buffalo Soldiers also challenged prevailing misconceptions about black people. In doing so, they contributed to the establishment of multicultural societies in the West and by extension, in the rest of the The Buffalo Soldiers initially came into being because during the late 19th century, the United States Military supported segregation. Black freemen thus could not serve along with the white soldiers. Thus, the Buffalo Soldiers were tasked with building forts which were often reserved only for white soldiers. In Forth Concho, the Buffalo Soldiers were housed in separate rooms. However, historians like Stanford L. Davis (1999) argue that the realitie...

The Quest for the Source of the Nile

The Quest for the Source of the Nile In the mid-nineteenth century, European explorers and geographers were obsessed with the question: where does the Nile River begin? Many considered it to be the greatest geographic mystery of their day, and those who sought it became household names. Their actions and the debates that surrounded them intensified public interest in Africa and contributed to the colonization of the continent. The Nile River The Nile River itself is easy to trace. It runs northward from the city of Khartoum in Sudan through Egypt and drains into the Mediterranean. It is created, though, from the confluence of two other rivers, The White Nile and the Blue Nile. By the early nineteenth century, European explorers had shown that the Blue Nile, which supplies much of the water for the Nile, was a shorter river, arising only in neighboring Ethiopia. From then forward, they fixed their attention on the mysterious White Nile, which arose much further south on the Continent. A Nineteenth-Century Obsession By the mid-nineteenth century, Europeans had become obsessed with finding the source of the Nile. In 1857, Richard Burton and John Hannington Speke, who already disliked each other, set out from the east coast to find the much-rumored source of the White Nile. After several months of acrimonious travel, they discovered Lake Tanganyika, though reportedly it was their headman, a former slave known as Sidi Mubarak Bombay, who first spotted the lake (Bombay was essential to the success of the trip in many ways and went on to manage several European expeditions, becoming one of the many career headmen on whom explorers heavily relied.) As Burton was ill, and the two explorers were constantly locking horns, Speke proceeded north on his own, and there found Lake Victoria. Speke returned triumphantly, convinced he had found the source of the Nile, but Burton dismissed his claims, beginning one of the most divisive and public disputes of the age. The public at first strongly favored Speke, and he was sent on a second expedition, with another explorer, James Grant, and nearly 200 African porters, guards, and headmen. They found the White Nile but were unable to follow it up to Khartoum. In fact, it was not until 2004 that a team finally managed to follow the river from Uganda all the way to the Mediterranean. So, once again Speke returned unable to offer conclusive proof. A public debate was arranged between him and Burton, but when he shot and killed himself on the day of the debate, in what many believed was an act of suicide rather than the shooting accident it was officially proclaimed to be, support swung full circle to Burton and his theories.   The quest for conclusive proof continued for the next 13 years. Dr. David Livingstone and Henry Morton Stanley searched Lake Tanganyika together, disproving Burton’s theory, but it was not until the mid-1870s that Stanly finally circumnavigated Lake Victoria and explored the surrounding lakes, confirming Speke’s theory and solving the mystery, for a few generations at least. The Continuing Mystery As Stanley showed, the White Nile flows out of Lake Victoria, but the lake itself has several feeder rivers, and present-day geographers and amateur explorers still debate which of these is the true source of the Nile. In 2013, the question came to the fore again when the popular BBC car show, Top Gear, filmed an episode featuring the three presenters trying to find the source of the Nile while driving inexpensive station wagons, known in Britain as estate cars. Currently, most people agree the source is one of two small rivers, one of which arises in Rwanda, the other in neighboring Burundi, but it is a mystery that continues.

Managing Communication Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Managing Communication - Coursework Example SOK – Fitness is not an exception when it comes to appropriate management of information as it is the verge of remaining competitive and relevant in the market2. Members of the marketing team in SOK – Fitness come across a wide range of date in their daily operations most of which are significant for effective decision making in areas of improving the image and publicity of the Fitness Center. The information that gets at the disposal of the marketing team is highly concerned with the financial and sales aspects of the Fitness Center. Information and knowledge is collected from the both internal and external sources. Internal data is collected through everyday interaction with the customers. For instance, the marketing team derives a wide range of information from the visit reports by the sales personnel, received and delivered orders, return inwards, customer enquiries, sales invoices, and recorded costs3. Marketers’ interaction with the clients provides a vital source of secondary information which can be used for marketing research. A wide range of information is also collected from the external sources which include but not limited to Government statistics, Trade associations, Commercial services, National and international institutions. Most of the information gathered from external sources does not directly reflect the affairs and business processes of the organizations4. However, they portray an aggregate data about the affairs of the entire industry. Such information is considered relevant because it is gathered from various operators in the fitness center and as such they are highly valuable market research purposes5. Before information is formatted in SOK – Fitness it is first categorized into whether it should be structured or unstructured. Structured information refers to information which should formatted using specified rules and guidelines for precision and formality while unstructured information does not require rule s and guidelines when being formatted. Unstructured data will be used for unstructured decisions while the structured information shall be used for structured decisions6. Another important point to consider when formatting information in the Fitness Center is the scope and frequency of use. Computer system will be used for formatting the information gathered from various sources that is both internal and external sources. Management information systems, Expert Systems and Decision Support Systems will be used for formatting and procession of the data gathered from internal and external sources for a highly intelligible information that would ease decision making process. Already formatted information will be stored in secondary storage devices such as computer hard disks and the compact disks for future utilization7. Marketing team in the SOK – Fitness are relying on the easiest way of storing information gathered from various sources as well as the already formatted informat ion in computer hard disk and compact disks as this does not involve exorbitant spending on storage of information. The choice of a storage facility will have an impact on the effectiveness on the data in future. A wrong choice will translate to significant damages on data stored8. The stored information

English contract act Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

English contract act - Coursework Example A promise to offer something of value shall be regarded as consideration. A promise to repair a house next month is the analogues of carrying out the yard work in reality when assessing whether consideration is there or not. There should be a deal between two parties if one promises to do something if the other carryout some obligation. Consideration should not be relates to earlier period. It should have moved from the side of the promisee. Consideration should be satisfactory. It must not refer something the promise which is already required to be carried out. It must be within the purview of law. (Beatty et al 2007:276). According to Sir Frederick Pollock, consideration can be defined as â€Å"an act or restraint of one party usually known as promisee or the promise thereof is the cost for which the promise of the other is purchased (the promisor) and the promise thus offered is enforceable.† The same view was also adopted by Lord Dunedin in â€Å"Dunlop v. Selfridge.† (Andrews 2011:125). â€Å"What the law means?† In English law, when one party wants to make a promise without any compensation or consideration through an agreement which requires another party to pay or do something, is known as naked agreement or a nude pact or nudum pactum. Thus, a nudum pactum agreement entered without any seal is void in law, and a party cannot be coerced to perform upon it as per the maxim â€Å"Ex nudo pacto non oritur actio.† (Brown 2006:374). Gratuitous promises are unenforceable unless made in a written deed format which means a promise which is in writing, duly signed, had witnesses and duly delivered. In this case , a nationwide charity asks Simon if any of the artists signed to his record label would be prepared to perform free of charge at an open-air concert to celebrate the closing of the Olympic Games. Hence, the charity wants Simon to provide service of his record label free of charge which is known as Gratuitous promise, which is unenforceable in English law. In this case, the charity should have compelled Simon to sign an agreement to provide service free of charge, and any oral promise by Simon will be regarded as a gratuitous promise which is said to lack â€Å"consideration.† Thus, even if Simon has made a moral or casual commitment, it will be regarded as nudum pactum, which is having no legal impact under English law. On the other hand, if there is a contract between Simon and the Charity, which is duly corroborated by consideration, then Simon has the obligation to fulfil his promise. Why/how the law is relevant to Simon using cases (with full citation) to illustrate and support points made where appropriate? A promise which is given after the performance of an act is not enforceable under the English Contract Act. This is known as past consideration and has been acknowledged as not a good consideration. The main objective for this is that the performance or act in question is not part of any e xchange or bargain, and it is rather gratuitous. Hence, any promise made subsequently will not form part of any contractual bargain and not enforceable. Those supposed agreements, which are without any consideration like one-sided undertakings, which may be binding a party morally but not enforceable under the contract law. In the eighteenth century, an effort was attempted by the courts in UK to define consideration so as to include some pre-existing moral commitments. In specific

Traits Theory Of Leadership Management Essay

Traits Theory Of Leadership Management Essay Early research by Burns (1978) concluded that leadership is one of the most observed and least understood phenomena on earth (Burns, 1978). To enhance our understanding of leadership this chapter will critically review the early theories of leadership to current leadership research on transformational and transactional leadership style. It will also discuss how the current findings on leadership are likely to impact the commitment of members in National Union of Bank Employees (NUBE). 2.0 Leadership Leadership has become a hot topic with a burgeoning but fragmented literature in the past few years that draws on both the arts and the sciences. So far there is no agreed paradigm for the study and practice of leadership. The concept of leadership has seized the attention and concern of many researchers in the field of management, psychology, sociology, anthropology, and others in the last century. Such a concern is due to the important roles leaders play in facilitating organizational effectiveness and performance through their behaviors or styles they exhibit and competencies they posses. Indeed, in this context, one measure organizational effectiveness is members commitment (Meyer et al., 2002). It is the contention that the present study is conducted to determine how leadership style affects commitment amongst employees at work. So, what is leadership? The concept of leadership has been defined differently by scholars in terms of the emphasis on leaders traits, influence, competencies, individual vs., and group orientation and cognitive vs. emotional orientations. Burns (1978) defines leadership as a mobilization process by individuals with certain motives, values and access to resources in a context of competition and conflict in the pursuit of goals. More recently, Nigel Nicholson speaks of leadership as either a position or a process (Bradshaw, 2002). If a process, he says, it is about influencing other people, and this requires knowing oneself, knowing those other people, and knowing how to influence them. In order to understand how leadership is conceptualized, it is necessary to look at the leadership styles and variety of leadership theories developed, as follows. Traits Theory of Leadership Trait theories on leadership started in the twentieth century and formal theories on leadership were given by sociologists, experts in human behavior and psychologists. The researchers from 1920s to 1960s focused on the personality of leader and tried to find some traits as the basic of successful leadership (Adair, 1984). Frederick Taylor (1856-1915) cultivated the theory of leadership for the first time for leading in the formal organizations. His basic idea was to increase output by using scientific parameter. According to Bass (1990), successful leadership is determined by factors classified into six groups: achievement, responsibility, capacity, participation and situation. He also claimed that leaders are born but no made. The main assumptions of trait theory are the (a) the common features that characterize are considered as the criteria to define the suitability and successfulness of leadership; (b) an effective leader inherits and learns his/her traits, and (c) leaders are born and not made. To test the traits theory, Gordon (1987) carried out a study to define the relationship between characteristics of personality and leadership. He found a significant relationship between the ability of taking responsibility and leadership. He further found a weak but positive relationship between intelligence, authority and intelligence, and leadership. In a different study to illustrate the differences between leaders and non-leaders in terms of their personalities and traits, Beer et al. (1990) found that leaders were identified as being serious, self-dependent, confident of their competencies, best decision makers, and reasonable in expressing thoughts. They also revealed that leaders are characterized by being able to take responsibility, are self motivated, more persuasive, more capable in influencing others, more energetic, and more diplomatic. Stogdill (1974) carried out a survey of the factorial studies between 1945 and 1970 to define the main features of a leader. He found that leadership traits are defined into six main types: corporal traits, social background, intelligence, capability, personality traits, relevant to task, and social features. The results also showed that an effective leader has skills such as social and personality skills, technical skills, managerial skills, intellectual skills, friendship-achievements skills, being supportive for team work, and being defensive towards work. Situational Theories of Leadership Situational theories appeared as a reaction to the trait theory of leadership. Situational Leadership Theory Ability level of the officer High 5 4 3 2 1 Delegating Supporting Coaching Directing Willingness level of the officer Low High Low 1 2 3 4 5 The Situational Leadership Theory suggests that effective leadership requires both acts of leadership and management. Depending on the level of each of these acts necessary, four different styles of leadership can be utilized. These are delegating, coaching, directing, and supporting. For a leader to be purposeful in their direction, they must use the correct style by being able to evaluate a followers readiness level. In other words, they must meet a follower where they are. Fiedler Contingency Model Functional theory 2.3 Early Description of Relation- Oriented and Task-Oriented Leadership Behavior The study of leadership has an important place in the study of management and organization behavior for several decades. There is no other role in organization has been focused more interest than the leader (SchwandtMarquardt, 2000). The early study of leadership behavior separate those behaviors into relation-oriented and task oriented leadership. Relations-oriented leadership focuses on the quality of the relationship with followers, whereas task oriented leadership focus on the task to be accomplished by followers (Bass, 1990). Researchers have used various terms to describe relations-oriented and task oriented leadership behaviors. Bass (1990) provides an overview of terms used by several researchers. For example, descriptions of relations-oriented leadership behaviors have included participatory decision making (Ouchi, 1981), supportive (Bowers Seashore,1966), concern for people (Blake Mouton,1964), emphasizing employee needs(Fleishman,1957), people centered (Anderson,1974) and leadership (Zaleznik,1977). For both types of leadership behaviors, the most recent descriptions came from Bass Avolio (1995, 1997). They describe relations-oriented behaviors as Idealized Influence (attributed), Idealized Influence (behavior), Individualized Consideration, Intellectual Stimulation and Inspirational Motivation. Their task-oriented description include contingent reward, management-by-exception (active) and management-by-exception (passive) Burns (1978) comprehensive theory formed the foundation for Basss (1985) transformational-transactional differentiation which has become considerable importance in the study of leadership in organization. 2.4 Transactional and Transformational Leadership Leadership style is defined as a pattern of emphases, indexed by the frequency or intensity of specific leadership behaviors or attitudes, which a leader places on the different leadership functions (Casimir, 2001). Theorists have come up with various leadership styles, namely autocratic leadership, transactional leadership, transformational leadership, and servant leadership. Some have been widely studied of by researchers and their effects on organizations have been established. Transformational leadership is one of the leadership styles that have been studied and its relationships with various elements in management have been established. Transformational leadership is a style of leadership whereby a leader can motivate a subordinate to perform above and beyond what he or she had previously believed possible (Bass, 1985). A study performed by Parry (2003) in public sector organizations found that transformational leadership style has a positive effect on the innovation and effectiveness of these organizations. According to Bass Avolio(1995), transactional leadership refers to an influence process to exchange valued rewards for performance. Thus, transactional leadership embraces based exchange relationship. The leader promotes uniformity by providing extrinsic (positive or negative) reward to the collaborators (Cardona, 2000). Transactional leadership encompasses fairly traditional managerial styles where managers or leaders gain compliance and performance by either offering rewards or punishing deviations from standards. This is the pattern of leadership prevalent in most organizations and organizational situations because it contains a basic mechanism of exchange relations which becomes possible when there is no outstanding sense of impeding threat or anxiety. Bass (1985) conceptualized transformational leaders as unique motivators who encourage follower to go beyond their believed capabilities in pursuit of a shared, common goal. Transformational leaders are concerned about efficiency and the achievement of organization goal. They do so with a focus in supporting staff emotionally and intellectually. Basss initial views, characterized transformational leadership as the ability to elicit support and participation from followers through personal qualities. The significance of transactional and transformational leadership has been elaborated in the Full Range of Leadership Model (Avolio and Bass,1991) 2.5 The Full Range Leadership Model The full range leadership model is probably the most validated leadership model in use world-wide today. The originality of the full range leadership (FRL) model lies in the concept of a range of leadership behaviors which all leaders demonstrate. This model required a change for a balanced leadership behavior whereby moves away from the more transactional leadership towards the transformational leadership style. Bass (1999) was the one of the researcher to argue for a transformational style of leadership to transactional forms. Scholars have studied the full range leadership model (FRL) as a predictor of a variety of outcomes in organizations such as employees commitment, employee satisfaction, motivation, organizational effectiveness and performance. (Base and Stogdill, 1990; Barbuto et al., 2007) The Full Range Model describes three main types of leadership behavior to transformational behavior ranging from completely inactive (laissez-faire) to transactional behaviors to transformational behaviors. Thus, transactional and transformational leadership are seen to be in a continuum rather than being mutually exclusive (Yammarino, 1993; Bass and Avolio, 1994). According to Base and Avolio(1995) Laissez-faire is non leadership behaviors that imply the leaders indifference towards both followers actions and organizational outcomes, as well as demonstrating an attitude of abdicating responsibility (to make decisions, or address important issues). The laissez-faire leader, who is also referred to as non transactional is characterized by a relative lack of concern for his subordinates (Bass and Riggio, 2006). The Full Range Leadership (FRL) Model consists of three transactional leader characteristics. Contingent Reward Contingent reward is the classical transactional leadership style. Here the leader sets very clear goals, objectives and targets and clarifies, either openly or by inference, what rewards can be expected for successful completion. Contingent reward leaders are found to be reasonably effective, although not as much as the five Is in transformational leadership for motivating others to achieve higher levels of performance. These leaders assign agreements on what needs to be done and promise rewards or actually reward followers for satisfactory carrying out the assignment. Management by Exception (passive) Management by exception (passive) refers to the process of paying attention to the exceptional rather than the normal. Thus management by exception leaders tend to be relatively laissez-faire under normal circumstances but take action when problem occur, mistakes are made or deviation from standards are apparent. Leaders wait passively for deviances and errors to occur and then take corrective action (Avolio and Bass,1991) Management by Exception (active) Management by exception (active) leaders is found to be less effective than contingent reward leaders but is still required in certain situations. They arrange to actively to actively monitor deviances from standards, mistakes and errors in the followers assignments and to take corrective action as necessary. The leader pays very close attention to any problem or deviations and has extensive and accurate monitoring and control system to provide early warnings of such problems. In the Full Range Leadership (FRL) Model, Bass (1998) divided transformational leadership into four scales. Idealized Influence Idealized Influence is often associated with charismatic leadership (e.g Shamir et.al., 1993; Yulk,1999). Leaders portraying idealized influence attributes have the socialized charisma (Avolio and Bass, 2002). They are perceived as being confident and powerful, and viewed as focusing on higher-order ideals and ethics. Such leaders are often seen as being high on morality, trust, integrity, honesty and purpose. House and Shamir (1993) have said that charismatic leaders demonstrate determination, optimism, and confidence in them to accomplish the mission and realize the vision. For example, Dr Martin Luther King inspired people through his oratorical skills in the face of unpromising resistance. Leaders who exert idealized influence behave in ways that demonstrate high standards of ethical and moral conduct (Bass, 1998). Idealized influence is behavior that encourages followers to use their leaders role model. Inspirational Motivation Inspirational Motivation involves communicating the vision to followers, fostering follower identification with the vision, focusing follower efforts, arousing their self awareness of higher goals and motivations and sustaining positive emotional arousal and identification with these goals (Bans, 1990).Inspirational motivation leaders motivate and inspire followers by providing meaning and challenge to work. These leaders engage followers in envisioning attractive future states and created communicated expectations that followers want to meet. Intellectual Stimulation Intellectual stimulation essentially involves the leader stimulating the follower to think through issues and problems for themselves and thus to develop their own abilities. This leadership approach reflects in large measure the coaching, morale building strengths of individualized consideration. Leaders stimulate followers effort to be innovative and creative by questioning assumptions, reframing problems and approaching old situations in new ways. New ideas and creativity problem solutions are solicited from followers who are included in the process of addressing problems and finding solutions. Individualized Consideration Individualized consideration includes mentoring, coaching, continuous feedback, and linking the individuals current needs to the organizations mission (Bass, 1990).leaders pay special attention to the needs of each individual follower for achievement and growth. Leaders who use this style of leadership show consideration for their workers need and are prepared to encourage and coach the development of appropriate workplace behavior. Individualized consideration leaders pay special attention to the needs of each individual follower for achievement and growth. Followers are developed to successively higher level of potential (Fukushige and Spicer, 2007) In the Full Range Leadership (FRL) Model, the transformational leader follower relationship is viewed as one of mutual stimulation (Barbuto, 1997). The influence of transformational leaders was distinguished on the hierarchical scale of moral development measured by Kohlbergs conceptualization (Popper et, al., 2002). This in more study also reports transformational leaders are classified as more morally advanced than transactional leaders. Figure 1: Full Range Leadership Model 1 PASSIVE ACTIVE Effective Transactional Laissez-faire Laissez-faire Transformational Leadership Management Figure 2: Full Range Leadership Model 2 Increase impact on commitment Laissez-faire Management-by-exception Contingent Reward Intellectual Stimulation Inspirational Motivation Idealized Influence Individualized consideration McGuire and Kennerly (2006) identifies the relationship between organizational leadership and members commitment in the literature since 1950s. McGuire and Kennerly states that transactional and transformational leadership style provides a framework for interaction that might affect the employees relationship, commitment, and work environment. The leadership style adopted by the leaders of National Union of Bank Employees(NUBE) will influence all the activities of union.(Naude and McCabe,2005). According to Bass (1990), transformational leaders demonstrated the four characteristics of idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration. Transformational leaders inspired others to improve performance, satisfied and achieved outcomes beyond expectations. McGuire and Kennerly (2006) reported increased loyalty, organizational commitment, job satisfaction, and morale with transformational leaders compared with limited levels of job satisfaction and lower levels of organizational commitment with transactional leadership. Many studies involving the broad categories of transformational and transactional leadership behaviors, as well as specific behaviors within those categories have demonstrated that these behavior impact both individual and organizational effectiveness. Organizational commitment is a construct that explores effectiveness outcomes in similar areas. 2.6 Organizational Commitment Organizational commitment plays an important role in the study leadership. This is in part due to the number of works that have found relationships between organizational commitment and attitudes and behaviors in the workplace (Porter et al, 1974, Angle and Perry, 1981). Organizational commitment has linked to leadership behaviors that are relations-oriented and task-oriented. DeCotiisSummers(1987) found that when employees were treated with consideration they show greater level of commitment. Jermier Berkes (1979) discovered that employees who participate in decision making had higher levels of commitment to the organization. Organizational commitment provides a broad measure of the effectiveness of leadership behaviors. This relationship offers a way to further explore the subject of leadership. Bycio, Hackett, Allen (1995) reported positive correlations between the leadership behaviors of charisma, intellectual stimulation, individualized consideration, and contingent reward and affective, continuance and normative commitment. Studies suggest that committed workers contribute to the organization in more positive ways (Meyer and Allen,1997). 2.6.1 Definition of Commitment Organizational commitment has been defined differently by different scholars depending on their background. Multiple definitions of organizational commitment are found in the literature. However, Mowday et al (1979) defines organizational commitment as the relative strength of the identification of the individual and his involvement in his particular organization. According to this definition, organizational commitment has three basic components: A strong belief in and acceptance of the organizational goals and values(identification) A willingness to exert a considerable effort on behalf of the organization(involvement) A strong desire to remain with the organization. Sheldon (1971) defined commitment as being a positive evaluation of the organization and the organizational goals. According to Buchanan (1974) most scholars define commitment as being a bond between an individual (the employee) and the organization (the employer). In explaining the significance of organizational commitment, Bateman and Strasser(1984) state that the purpose of studying organizational commitment are related to (a) employees behavior and performance effectiveness, (b) attitudinal, affective and cognitive constructs such as job satisfaction, (c) characteristics of the employees job task, such as responsibility and (d) personal characteristics of the employee such as level of education. Commitment involves a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the organization and acceptance of the values and goals of the organization (Ingersoll et al., 2000). Organizational commitment is influenced by such factors as individuals and organizational characteristics (Angle and Perry, 1983). For example organizational members continued commitment towards an organization could be influenced by such factors as benefits, status, monetary and interpersonal rewards. 2.6.2 Three Types of Organizational Commitment Meyer and Allen (1991) and Dunham et al (1994) identified three types of commitment; affective commitment, continuance commitment, and normative commitment. The differences between these three types of commitment reflect the psychological state that binds the individual to the organization. They argued that the affective component is determined by work experiences relating to the job of the person and structural characteristics. Continuance is determined by the magnitude and number of investments that have been made in the current organization and the number of perceived alternatives. Lastly, the normative component is determined by an individuals experiences prior to entry and during employment in the organization in terms of familial, cultural and organizational socialization. Affective commitment is defined as the emotional attachment, identification, and involvement that an employee has with its organization and goals (Mowday et al., 1997, Meyer Allen, 1993). They further state that affective communication is when the employee identifies with a particular organization and its goals in order to maintain membership to facilitate the goal. Meyer and Allen (1997) continue to say that employees retain membership out of choice and this is their commitment to the organization. Continuance commitment is the willingness to remain in an organization because of the investment that the employee has with nontransferable investments. Nontransferable include things such as retirement, relationship with other employees, or things that are special to the organization (Reichers, 1985). Continuance commitment t also includes factors such as years of employment or benefits that the employee may receive that are unique to the organization (Reichers, 1985). Meyer and Allen (1997) further explain that employees who share continuance commitment with their employer often make it very difficult for an employee to leave the organization. Normative Commitment (Bolon, 1993) is the commitment that a person believes that they have to the organization or their feeling of obligation to their workplace. In 1982, Weiner discusses normative commitment as being a generalized value of loyalty and duty. Meyer and Allen (1991) supported this type of commitment prior to Bolons definition, with their definition of normative commitment being a feeling of obligation. Normative commitment can be explained by other commitments such as marriage, family, religion, and etc. Therefore when it comes to ones commitment to their place of employment they often feel like they have a moral obligation to the organization (Wiener, 1982). In arguing for their framework, Meyer Allen (1991) contended that affective, continuance, and normative commitment were components rather than types because employees could have varying degree of all three. For example, one employee might feel both a strong attachment to an organization and a sense of obligation to remain. A second employee might enjoy working for the organization but also recognize that leaving would be very difficult from an economic standpoint. Finally, a third employee might experience a considerable degree of desire, need and obligation to remain with the current employer (Meyer Allen, 1997). Even though the authors present this argument, they do not imply that there is a rationale for summing all the scales to obtain an overall score for organizational commitment. 2.6 Previous Studies Ooi Chai Liang(2002) has conducted a research to identify whether there is a significant relationship between transformational leadership style and commitment in the organization. Research sample consist of 35 employees under the supervision of supervisors in Hotel Mercure Ace,Johor Bharu. Results from this research have proven that when situational factor is taken into consideration, motivation does not show significant effect on the relationship between transformational leadership and commitment in the organization. Whereas, situational motivation factor act as a predictor to the commitment in the organization. Research result also shows that there is no significant relationship between transformational leadership and commitment in the organization. Tan Bee Hong (2000) has conduct a research to identify the relationship between transformational and transactional leadership style with job performance. Research sample consist of 282 employees of blue collar in Technocom System Sdn Bhd(TSSB), Johor Bahru. Statistical technique such as Pearson Correlation Analysis used to determine the relationship between transformational and transactional leadership style with job performance. Research result shows that there is a significant relationship between dimensions of transformational and transactional leadership style with job performance. Wee Kok Cheng (2000) carried out research to identify the relationship between transformational and transactional leadership with job satisfaction. The researcher has concluded that transformational leadership style show a greater relationship with job satisfaction compared to transactional leadership. The study has been conducted on 45 respondents who are nurses and assistant nurses. The purpose of the study is to identify the leadership styles and job satisfaction of nurses in the department of Hospital Daerah Mersing, Johor Bahru. Research result shows that there is a positive relationship between transformational and transactional leadership style with job satisfaction. There were two dimensions of transformational leadership (Idealized Influence and Intellectual Stimulation) which shows the highest significant relationship with job satisfaction. Othaman Mohd Yunus(1994) has conduct a research to study the effect of transformational and transactional leadership between organizational culture and inspiration of a police and job performance and work stress among Polis Diraja Malaysia. Findings of the study shows, in certain situation dimensions of transformational and transactional leadership style plays a moderate role especially in the relationship of PDRM cultures with performance and work stress. Liong (1990) has carried out research to identify the validity of the transformational leadership in a sample of principles and teachers who were selected from 90 secondary schools in Singapore. According to the researcher, principals and teachers who adopt the characteristics of transformational leadership shows high level of job satisfaction and commitment towards schools. Effectiveness of leadership is manifested indirectly through measuring the effectiveness of schools such as higher academic achievement in public examination and success in the field of curriculum. Wiener Vardi(1980) states the impact that organizational commitment had on commitment to the job and career commitment. Their respondents were 56 insurance agents and 85 professional staffs. The researcher reported positive relationship between organizational commitment and the other two types of commitment. In nine studies involving 2734 people, Dunham, Grube Castaneda (1994) examined how participatory management and supervisory feedback influenced employee level of commitment. The researcher founds found that when supervisors provided feedback about performance and allowed employees to participate in decision making, employee levels of affective commitment was stronger than both continuance and normative commitment. It indicated employees staying with the organization were more related to wanting to, rather than needing to or feeling they ought to. In the study of 238 nurses, Cohen (1996) investigated the relationship between affective, continuance and normative commitment and the following other types of commitment: work involvement, job involvement, and career commitment. Findings revealed that affective commitment was more highly correlated with all the other types of commitment. In other words, exhibit higher levels of commitment to their work, their job and their career. Irving, Coleman,Cooper(1997) investigated the relationship between affective, continuance, and normative commitment and the outcome measures of job satisfaction and turnover intervention. Total participants for the study included 232 employees. Results revealed that job satisfaction was positively related to both affective and normative commitment. However, job satisfaction was negatively related to continuance commitment. All three types of commitment were negatively related to turnover intentions, with continuance commitment having the strongest negative relationship. . 2.2 Leadership Styles(Intro)chap 1 Grint (2000) has underscored that a clear understanding of leadership requires an historical approach. He stresses that a particular leadership style during a process of change is time based and that every period has room for a limited palette of leadership qualities (Velde, 2002). A style organizes the pragmatic activity of a leader, indicates how his actions are coordinated and how things and people that matter are determined and changed (Spinosa et al., 2001). It has been argued that organizations beliefs, values and assumptions are of critical importance to the overall style of leadership that they adopt (Bunmi, 2007). Leadership style is the behavior pattern used by leader to resolve the organizational issues. There are several different leadership styles that can be identified in various leaders.

Deception Point Page 26

Like a hot knife through a frozen stick of butter. Norah motioned to the NASA men on the winches. â€Å"The generators can't handle this kind of strain, so I'm using manpower to lift.† â€Å"That's crap!† one of the workers interjected. â€Å"She's using manpower because she likes to see us sweat!† â€Å"Relax,† Norah fired back. â€Å"You girls have been bitching for two days that you're cold. I cured that. Now keep pulling.† The workers laughed. â€Å"What are the pylons for?† Rachel asked, pointing to several orange highway cones positioned around the tower at what appeared to be random locations. Rachel had seen similar cones dispersed around the dome. â€Å"Critical glaciology tool,† Norah said. â€Å"We call them SHABAs. That's short for ‘step here and break ankle.'† She picked up one of the pylons to reveal a circular bore hole that plunged like a bottomless well into the depths of the glacier. â€Å"Bad place to step.† She replaced the pylon. â€Å"We drilled holes all over the glacier for a structural continuity check. As in normal archeology, the number of years an object has been buried is indicated by how deep beneath the surface it's found. The farther down one finds it, the longer it's been there. So when an object is discovered under the ice, we can date that object's arrival by how much ice has accumulated on top of it. To make sure our core dating measurements are accurate, we check multiple areas of the ice sheet to confirm that the area is one solid slab and hasn't been disrupted by earthquake, fissuring, avalanche, what have you.† â€Å"So how does this glacier look?† â€Å"Flawless,† Norah said. â€Å"A perfect, solid slab. No fault lines or glacial turnover. This meteorite is what we call a ‘static fall.' It's been in the ice untouched and unaffected since it landed in 1716.† Rachel did a double take. â€Å"You know the exact year it fell?† Norah looked surprised by the question. â€Å"Hell, yes. That's why they called me in. I read ice.† She motioned to a nearby pile of cylindrical tubes of ice. Each looked like a translucent telephone pole and was marked with a bright orange tag. â€Å"Those ice cores are a frozen geologic record.† She led Rachel over to the tubes. â€Å"If you look closely you can see individual layers in the ice.† Rachel crouched down and could indeed see that the tube was made up of what appeared to be strata of ice with subtle differences in luminosity and clarity. The layers varied between paper thin to about a quarter of an inch thick. â€Å"Each winter brings a heavy snowfall to the ice shelf,† Norah said, â€Å"and each spring brings a partial thaw. So we see a new compression layer every season. We simply start at the top-the most recent winter-and count backward.† â€Å"Like counting rings on a tree.† â€Å"It's not quite that simple, Ms. Sexton. Remember, we're measuring hundreds of feet of layerings. We need to read climatological markers to benchmark our work-precipitation records, airborne pollutants, that sort of thing.† Tolland and the others joined them now. Tolland smiled at Rachel. â€Å"She knows a lot about ice, doesn't she?† Rachel felt oddly happy to see him. â€Å"Yeah, she's amazing.† â€Å"And for the record,† Tolland nodded, â€Å"Dr. Mangor's 1716 date is right on. NASA came up with the exact same year of impact well before we even got here. Dr. Mangor drilled her own cores, ran her own tests, and confirmed NASA's work.† Rachel was impressed. â€Å"And coincidentally,† Norah said, â€Å"1716 is the exact year early explorers claimed to have seen a bright fire-ball in the sky over northern Canada. The meteor became known as the Jungersol Fall, after the name of the exploration's leader.† â€Å"So,† Corky added, â€Å"the fact that the core dates and the historic record match is virtual proof that we're looking at a fragment of the same meteorite that Jungersol recorded seeing in 1716.† â€Å"Dr. Mangor!† one of the NASA workers called out â€Å"Leader hasps are starting to show!† â€Å"Tour's over, folks,† Norah said. â€Å"Moment of truth.† She grabbed a folding chair, climbed up onto it, and shouted out at the top of her lungs. â€Å"Surfacing in five minutes, everyone!† All around the dome, like Pavlovian dogs responding to a dinner bell, the scientists dropped what they were doing and hurried toward the extraction zone. Norah Mangor put her hands on her hips and surveyed her domain. â€Å"Okay, let's raise the Titanic.† 28 â€Å"Step aside!† Norah hollered, moving through the growing crowd. The workers scattered. Norah took control, making a show of checking the cable tensions and alignments. â€Å"Heave!† one of the NASA men yelled. The men tightened their winches, and the cables ascended another six inches out of the hole. As the cables continued to move upward, Rachel felt the crowd inching forward in anticipation. Corky and Tolland were nearby, looking like kids at Christmas. On the far side of the hole, the hulking frame of NASA administrator Lawrence Ekstrom arrived, taking a position to watch the extraction. â€Å"Hasps!† one of the NASA men yelled. â€Å"Leaders are showing!† The steel cables rising through the boreholes changed from silver braid to yellow leader chains. â€Å"Six more feet! Keep it steady!† The group around the scaffolding fell into a rapt silence, like onlookers at a seance awaiting the appearance of some divine specter-everyone straining for the first glimpse. Then Rachel saw it. Emerging from the thinning layer of ice, the hazy form of the meteorite began to show itself. The shadow was oblong and dark, blurry at first, but getting clearer every moment as it melted its way upward. â€Å"Tighter!† a technician yelled. The men tightened the winches, and the scaffolding creaked. â€Å"Five more feet! Keep the tension even!† Rachel could now see the ice above the stone beginning to bulge upward like a pregnant beast about to give birth. Atop the hump, surrounding the laser's point of entry, a small circle of surface ice began to give way, melting, dissolving into a widening hole. â€Å"Cervix is dilated!† someone shouted. â€Å"Nine hundred centimeters!† A tense laughter broke the silence. â€Å"Okay, kill the laser!† Someone threw a switch, and the beam disappeared. And then it happened. Like the fiery arrival of some paleolithic god, the huge rock broke the surface with a hiss of steam. Through the swirling fog, the hulking shape rose out of the ice. The men manning the winches strained harder until finally the entire stone broke free of the frozen restraints and swung, hot and dripping, over an open shaft of simmering water. Rachel felt mesmerized. Dangling there on its cables, dripping wet, the meteorite's rugged surface glistened in the fluorescent lights, charred and rippled with the appearance of an enormous petrified prune. The rock was smooth and rounded on one end, this section apparently blasted away by friction as it streaked through the atmosphere. Looking at the charred fusion crust, Rachel could almost see the meteor rocketing earthward in a furious ball of flames. Incredibly, that was centuries ago. Now, the captured beast hung there on its cables, water dripping from its body. The hunt was over. Not until this moment had the drama of this event truly struck Rachel. The object hanging before her was from another world, millions of miles away. And trapped within it was evidence-no, proof-that man was not alone in the universe. The euphoria of the moment seemed to grip everyone at the same instant, and the crowd broke into spontaneous hoots and applause. Even the administrator seemed caught up in it. He clapped his men and women on the back, congratulating them. Looking on, Rachel felt a sudden joy for NASA. They'd had some tough luck in the past. Finally things were changing. They deserved this moment.

John Stuart Mill on Individual Liberty Essay - 2353 Words

John Stuart Mill on Individual Liberty Definition of Individual liberty In his work On Liberty, Mill placed much emphasis on individual liberty and its vital role in political society. To Mill, this phrase may be defined as the liberty of the individual to be the final judge over his actions; to decide what is right and wrong and to act upon that standard. On a secondary level, it also implies ones freedom to pursue ones own individuality. Mill believed in a society in which each individual leads his own distinctive life according to his own unique talents; unfettered by regulations upon thought, opinion, actions etc. However, Mill asserts an important caveat; that which he calls `the very simple principle. He writes, `That†¦show more content†¦Value of Individual Liberty Indeed, Mill asserted that the cultivation of ones individuality should be the goal of human existence. He wrote On Liberty as an argument against repressive laws which inhibit voluntary association and suppress original ideas and ways of thinking, in a bid to protect the freedom of the individual from stifling social conventions, oppressive legal controls and censorship. What is the value of individual liberty that calls for it to be defended so fervently by Mill? Individual Liberty and Truth Firstly, Mill believes that individual liberty is instrumental in the attainment of truth. No one can claim an infallibility of knowledge or a definite truth. Falsehoods are often sprinkled with specks of truth; and truth may exists as half-truths held by different people, and it is only through controversy that the truth in the parts can be unified into a larger canvas of the ultimate truth. If ones actions were to be censored completely, society would lose those specks of truth amongst the falsehoods, which would be disadvantageous to society. Furthermore, truth is very often not derived from the masses, but from the ideas of a select few. If these people are silenced by repressive laws or mass opinion, society will be deprived of a chance to find outShow MoreRelatedJohn Stuart Mills Work881 Words   |  4 PagesJohn Stuart Mill’s work provides a valuable insight to the issue of medicine that harm people in the classical utilitarian. Many people consider that prescription for medical marijuana as a moral sin or something that should be given to help the patients to improve his/her bad condition. As a majority of people and federal consider prescription for medical marijuana is immoral and it is restricted in many states including Texas. In the section on liberty, John StuartRead More`` On Liberty `` By John Stuart Mill1458 Words   |  6 PagesJohn Stuart Mill was an English philosopher and a progressive in British politics during the 17th century. He lived during a time of political transformation in England caused by the Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution brought social mobility to the middle and lower class, along with more political participation. With this newfound freedom, the people of England felt their liberties were being diminished because they had the ability to accomplish all the more but in some cases, couldRead MoreJohn Locke And John Stuart Mill s On Liberty Essay1748 Words   |  7 Pagesphilosophers over time have developed their own conceptions of liberty and the relationship of individuals to not only society, but also the state. Political philosophers such as, Aristotle and Plato have more of an ancient conception of liberty and the role the individual plays in society and to the state. Whereas, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and John Stuart Mill have developed a more modernized conception of liberty and the role of the individual to the state and society. Plato’s work the Republic, andRead MoreJohn Locke And John Stuart Mill s On Liberty Essay1200 Words   |  5 PagesPhilosophers over time have developed their own conceptions of liberty and the relationship of individuals to not only society, but also the state. Political Philosophers such as, Aristotle and Plato have more of an ancient conception of liberty and the role the individual plays in society and to the state. Whereas, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and John Stuart Mill have developed a more modernized conception of liberty and the role of the individual to the state and society. Plato’s work the Republic, andRead MoreIndividualism And Liberty By John Stuart Mill1196 Words   |  5 Pages In the essay, Liberty, written by John Stuart Mill, Mill states that individualism is the theory that â€Å"[o]ver himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign† (7). Before coming to this conclusion, Mill first explains that individualism and liberty were defined in ways far different from definitions now and that true individualism did not exist until later in history. It takes him several paragraphs and even chapters to finally suggest that a man, by himself, is free to do whatRead MoreKarl Marx And John Stuart Mill Essay1576 Words   |  7 PagesKarl Marx and John Stuart Mill were both philosophers who lived in the 1800s. Beginning with Karl Marx, he was a German philosopher, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. In his adult years, Marx was not recognized as a citizen of any country even though he was born in Germany and he spent most of his years in London, England. There, he continued to evolve his philosophy and social thought in participation o r collaboration with a German thinker called Friedrich Engels. They worked together andRead MoreAnalysis Of The Text On Liberty By John Stuart Mill1642 Words   |  7 PagesAccording the text ‘On Liberty’ by John Stuart Mill, his position with respect to free speech is that even one person had a specific opinion, mankind is not given grounds to silence him. Mill’s argument regarding free speech is valid because he protects the liberty of the individual over the popular opinion of society. I agree with Mill’s point of view because I also believe that everyone should have the voice to express what they wish, excluding when it causes harm to others. Mill begins the text byRead MoreThe Impact Of Media On American Society1640 Words   |  7 Pages John Stuart Mill in a post 9/11 Western Society Adam Kershek History 1002-106: Growth of Western Civilization Since 1715 November 2, 2017 It is no mystery that 9/11 brought upon change in American society. The lasting effects of this unforgiving event, such as, the ongoing wars, the severity of immigration and deportation laws, and the increase in racial profiling, continues to disrupt American society. This brings up an important question: Why are these still lasting issues inRead MoreMarx, Mill And Freud s Critique Of Political Economy And The Communist Manifesto Essay1133 Words   |  5 Pagesmerely implicit) notions of freedom and unfreedom we find in the texts we have read by Marx, Mill and Freud. Use the esoteric traditions we have examined thus far (from the Book of Job to Plato) as a comparative yardstick, or point of reference, but without letting them take over the foreground in your paper -- the latter should be reserved for these three figures. Karl Marx, Sigmund Freud, and John Stuart Mill are three authors who tackle the topic of freedom in unique ways, but their messages areRead MoreAccording to Mills, government should not be attempting to control individual freedoms, but should1100 Words   |  5 Pages According to Mills, government should not be attempting to control individual freedoms, but should be helping individuals develop in society. A society is only as great as the people who are in it. How a person develops should be up to them, but a government should support that development. Ensuring a free flow of factual information and opportunities for open discussion are ways a government can help. Again, he uses history as his support. He says that the history of mankind is a history of intellectual